- 01The Problem of Legitimate Administration
- 02Men as They Are and Laws as They Might Be
- 03The Search for a Sure Rule of Civil Order
- 01Freedom as the Basis of Political Association
- 02The Central Question of Human Chains and Civil Liberty
- 03Why Facts Cannot Create Right
- 01From Historical Facts to Universal Principles
- 02The Difference Between Positive Law and Political Right
- 03The Contract as the Basis of Legitimate Society
The Social Contract
Popular sovereignty and political legitimacy.
38Chapters
114Lessons
342Topics
Certificate of completion included
This course was produced by Cavua from a public-domain text.
Skills this course leaves you with.
- Explain Rousseau’s argument for the social contract as the basis of political authority
- Analyze the concepts of sovereignty, popular will, and political legitimacy
- Evaluate Rousseau’s critiques of force, conquest, slavery, and divided sovereignty
- Describe how civil society transforms natural freedom into civil and moral freedom
- Assess the role of law, property, and legislation in maintaining the common good
Curriculum
The full table of contents.
Every chapter, every lesson, every topic — laid out before you enroll. Click any chapter to expand it.
- Chapters
- 38
- Lessons
- 114
- Topics
- 342
- 01The Family as the Earliest Social Unit
- 02Paternal Authority and Natural Independence
- 03Why the State Is Not a Family
- 01Self-Preservation in the Forests
- 02Compassion Before Reflection
- 03The Absence of Property and Dependence
- 01The Rise of Language and Mutual Recognition
- 02The First Steps Toward Comparison and Pride
- 03How Social Life Produces Inequality
- 01The Absurdity of Might as a Legal Title
- 02War as a Relation Between States, Not Persons
- 03Why Slavery Cannot Be Legitimate
- 01Alienating Liberty for Oneself and Posterity
- 02The Futility of Obedience Under Coercion
- 03The Difference Between Power and Authority
- 01Conquest as No Foundation for Ownership
- 02The Vanquished Under the Mercy of the Victor
- 03Why Force Cannot Create Political Obligation
- 01The Limits of Historical Inquiry into Public Right
- 02Why Contract Theories Often Invent History
- 03The Problem of Treating Society as Naturally Unjust
- 01Why a First Convention Must Be Presupposed
- 02The Transition from Nature to Society
- 03The People as the Source of Political Association
- 01Mutual Covenant and Combination into a Civil Body Politic
- 02The Contract Between Individuals Rather Than Ruler and Ruled
- 03The Historical Use of Contract Language in Politics
- 01Each Person Alienates Himself to the Whole Community
- 02The Formation of the Body Politic
- 03The Exchange of Natural Independence for Civil Freedom
- 01The Public Deliberation That Binds All Subjects
- 02The Distinction Between Sovereign and Government
- 03The Civil Person as a Moral and Collective Being
- 01Obeying Only Oneself Through the Common Will
- 02Equality of Rights Under the Compact
- 03The General Will as the Basis of Legitimate Society
- 01Sovereignty as a Legal and Political Term
- 02The Sovereign as the Collective Body of Citizens
- 03Why Sovereignty Cannot Be Delegated Away
- 01The Sovereign as the Holder of the General Will
- 02The General Will as Common Interest
- 03The Difference Between Particular and General Wills
- 01The Sovereign Cannot Act Against the Common Good
- 02The Need for Active Popular Consent
- 03The Sovereign’s Relation to Law and Administration
- 01The Passage from Natural to Civil Liberty
- 02The Moral Change Produced by the Social Compact
- 03Civil Equality Under the Law
- 01Real Property and Public Possession
- 02The Social Basis of Ownership
- 03How the Compact Secures Goods and Persons
- 01The Body Politic as an Organized Living Body
- 02The Citizen’s Duties Within the Republic
- 03Public Interest Versus Private Will
- 01Property as a Civil Institution
- 02The Establishment of Laws and Property
- 03The Relation Between Labor and Possession
- 01Wealth as the First Term of Inequality
- 02The Growth of Luxury and Dependence
- 03How Civil Society Alters Human Wants
- 01Real and Personal Contributions
- 02Taxing Necessities Versus Superfluities
- 03The Burden of Taxes on the Poor
- 01The Inalienability of the Sovereign Power
- 02Why a People Cannot Give Away Its Will Forever
- 03The Difference Between Delegation and Alienation
- 01Popular Will as the Basis of Legitimacy
- 02The Sovereign Authority as a Collective Right
- 03Why Representation Cannot Replace Sovereignty
- 01Why Liberty Cannot Be Irrevocably Surrendered
- 02The Absurdity of Permanent Self-Subjection
- 03Posterity and the Rights of Future Citizens
- 01Sovereignty as One and Simple
- 02Why Division Destroys Sovereignty
- 03The Illusion of Divided Rights
- 01Separating Prince, People, and Sovereign
- 02The Mistaken Partition of Legislative Authority
- 03The Difference Between Functions and Sovereignty
- 01Votes as Expressions of the Whole Community
- 02When Majority Rule Reflects the General Will
- 03The Risk of Corruption in Popular Assemblies
- 01Why the General Will Is Not Always Correctly Expressed
- 02The Difference Between the General Will and Particular Interests
- 03How Citizens Can Mistake Their Own Interest
- 01The Need for Proper Deliberative Conditions
- 02Voting as a Test of Civic Judgment
- 03Secret Ballot and Corruption
- 01Law as an Act of the General Will
- 02The Public Judgment Behind Censorship
- 03The Relation Between Morals and Laws
- 01The Sovereign Cannot Act Beyond the Common Good
- 02The Limits Imposed by the Social Compact
- 03Why Sovereign Power Cannot Be Arbitrary
- 01What Each Citizen Alienates and Retains
- 02The Public Good as the Measure of Authority
- 03The Citizen’s Protection Against Personal Dependence
- 01The State as Guardian of Liberty
- 02The Danger of Overreaching Public Power
- 03The Need for Constitutional Restraint
- 01The State’s Claim Over the Citizen’s Life
- 02Why Public Authority Can Condemn a Citizen
- 03The Citizen’s Duty in Extreme Necessity
- 01The Logic of Capital Punishment
- 02The Relation Between Crime and Public Execration
- 03The State’s Right to Preserve Itself
- 01The Bounds of Moral Possibility
- 02Why Justice Must Not Be Confused with Negligence
- 03The Republic’s Need for Civic Virtue
- 01The People as the Measure of the Body Politic
- 02Population, Territory, and Political Scale
- 03The Conditions for a Well-Ordered State
- 01The Greatest Good as the Aim of Legislation
- 02Custom, Morals, and Public Opinion
- 03How Laws Shape the People’s Character
- 01Government as an Intermediate Body
- 02The Magistrate’s Three Wills
- 03The Effects of Size on Government Efficiency
- 01The Relation Between Territory and Population
- 02The Need for a Suitable Social Scale
- 03Why Large States Become Difficult to Govern
- 01The Best System of Legislation
- 02The Influence of Morals and Customs on Law
- 03The Role of Public Opinion in Political Stability
- 01Sparta and Rome as Political Models
- 02Geneva and the Swiss Free Cities
- 03The Decline of Peoples Through Corruption
- 01Measuring the Body Politic by Territory or People
- 02The Balance Between Expansion and Governance
- 03Why Fermentation Can Precede Reform
- 01How Laws Preserve or Alter the Constitution
- 02The Relationship Between Public Morality and Law
- 03The Role of Habit in Political Order
- 01Lycurgus and the Renewal of Sparta
- 02Rome After the Kings
- 03The Founding Moment of a State
- 01Government as an Intermediate Body Between Subjects and Sovereign
- 02The Execution of Laws by Magistrates
- 03The Relation Between Government and Public Correspondence
- 01Democracy, Aristocracy, and Monarchy
- 02The Number of Magistrates and Government Strength
- 03Mixed Arrangements Within Government
- 01The Tendency of Government to Contract
- 02The Death of the Body Politic
- 03Signs of Administrative Corruption
- 01Public Advantage as the Test of Good Rule
- 02Frugality, Equality, and Civic Strength
- 03Why Some Countries Suit Certain Governments Better
- 01The Tendency of Governments to Decay
- 02The Corruption of Magistrates and Officials
- 03The Weakening of Public Authority Through Luxury
- 01Intermediate Magistrates as a Check
- 02The Need for Public Virtue in Free States
- 03The Danger of Monarchical Concentration
- 01Political, Civil, Criminal, and Customary Law
- 02Law as the Declaration of the General Will
- 03The Relation Between Law and Public Judgment
- 01The Role of the Legislator
- 02Why Great Founders Need Exceptional Wisdom
- 03The Example of Lycurgus and the Decemvirs
- 01The Use of Religion in Early Lawgiving
- 02Civil Religion and Social Sentiment
- 03The Moral Force of Public Institutions
- 01Government as an Intermediate Body
- 02The Execution of Laws and Public Correspondence
- 03The Distinction Between Sovereign and Government
- 01The Three Wills in the Magistrate
- 02The Relation Between Magistrates and Citizens
- 03Why Government Needs a Real Corporate Life
- 01Why Larger Governments Grow Remiss
- 02The Effects of Subdivision and Combination
- 03The Balance Between Strength and Responsiveness
- 01The Constituent Principle of Democracy
- 02The Constituent Principle of Aristocracy
- 03The Constituent Principle of Monarchy
- 01Hereditary, Elective, and Natural Aristocracy
- 02The Role of Senate and Magistracy
- 03The Conditions for Stable Administration
- 01Advantages and Weaknesses of Different Regimes
- 02The Public Good Under Free and Monarchical States
- 03The Problem of Corruption in Each Form
- 01The Three Main Forms of Government
- 02Government by the Many, the Few, or One
- 03The Relative Strength of Each Form
- 01Mixed Governments and Their Combinations
- 02The Use of Intermediate Magistrates
- 03The Transition from One Form to Another
- 01Venice and the Serrar di Consiglio
- 02Roman and Greek Political Arrangements
- 03The Effects of Electoral and Tribal Divisions
- 01Why Governments Become Mixed
- 02The Balance of Monarchical and Democratic Elements
- 03The Role of Intermediate Bodies
- 01The Tensions Within Composite Constitutions
- 02How Mixed Governments Can Preserve Liberty
- 03The Risk of Corruption in Hybrid Systems
- 01The Roman Comitia and Tribal Organization
- 02The Venetian Constitution as a Mixed Model
- 03Voting Procedures and Political Balance
- 01Why Governments Must Fit Countries
- 02The Influence of Climate and Resources
- 03Population Size and Administrative Form
- 01Why One Constitution Cannot Suit Every People
- 02The Importance of Customs and Morals
- 03The Need for Adaptation to Local Conditions
- 01Swiss and Genevan Civic Conditions
- 02Sparta’s Frugality and Strength
- 03Monarchical States and Their Particular Needs
- 01Public Advantage as the Chief Test
- 02Equality, Frugality, and Civic Virtue
- 03The Preservation of Liberty and Order
- 01The Strength of Public Opinion
- 02The Stability of Laws and Customs
- 03The Absence of Corruption and Luxury
- 01Sparta as a Model of Discipline
- 02Rome’s Early Civic Energy
- 03Geneva’s Republican Reputation
- 01The Natural Tendency Toward Degeneration
- 02The Growth of Luxury and Inequality
- 03The Weakening of Civic Virtue
- 01Corruption Among Magistrates
- 02The Abuse of Power by Officials
- 03The Loss of Public Trust
- 01The Fall of Sparta and Rome
- 02The Decay of Free States
- 03The Rise of Tyranny from Weak Government
- 01The Need for Periodic Popular Assemblies
- 02How the Sovereign Preserves Its Rights
- 03The Role of Active Consent
- 01Election as a Governmental Function
- 02The Lot as the Natural Method of Democracy
- 03The Roman Comitia and Voting Practice
- 01The Use of Intermediate Magistrates
- 02The Need for Small Political Communities
- 03How Public Deliberation Prevents Usurpation
- 01The Sovereign’s Exercise of Rights in Small States
- 02The Difficulty of Maintaining Popular Rule in Large States
- 03The Need for Constitutional Continuity
- 01Why Deputies Cannot Replace the People
- 02The Limits of Representative Government
- 03The Difference Between Administration and Sovereignty
- 01What the People Has Not Ratified Is No Law
- 02The Renewal of Consent in Civic Life
- 03The People’s Role in Checking Officials
- 01The Sovereign’s Exercise of Rights in Small States
- 02The Difficulty of Maintaining Popular Rule in Large States
- 03The Need for Constitutional Continuity
- 01Why Deputies Cannot Replace the People
- 02The Limits of Representative Government
- 03The Difference Between Administration and Sovereignty
- 01What the People Has Not Ratified Is No Law
- 02The Renewal of Consent in Civic Life
- 03The People’s Role in Checking Officials
- 01Why Sovereignty Cannot Be Represented
- 02The Difference Between Deputies and Citizens
- 03The Limits of Parliamentary Government
- 01The Relation Between Government and the People
- 02Why Delegates Cannot Alienate the Public Will
- 03The Need for Direct Ratification
- 01The English Parliament and Free Government
- 02The Swiss Cities and Civic Participation
- 03The Roman Assemblies and Popular Decision
- 01Why Government Is Not a Separate Contracting Party
- 02The Difference Between Institution and Agreement
- 03Why the Social Compact Does Not Create Government Directly
- 01The Government as an Agent of the Sovereign
- 02Why the Government Cannot Be the Sovereign
- 03The Public Will as the Source of Administration
- 01The Absurdity of a One-Sided Contract
- 02Why Contract Language Misleads Political Theory
- 03The Need to Distinguish Law from Administration
- 01The Institution of Government as a Civic Act
- 02The People’s Role in Establishing Administration
- 03The Relation Between Constitution and Government
- 01How a Government Is Set Up
- 02The Role of Magistrates in the Founding Process
- 03The Need for Public Ratification
- 01Rome’s Founding Institutions
- 02The Example of Geneva and Swiss Civic Life
- 03The Use of Founders and Legislators
- 01How to Check the Usurpations of Government
- 02The People’s Right to Retain Administration
- 03The Danger of Officials Becoming Masters
- 01Intermediate Magistrates as Balancing Forces
- 02Public Deliberation and Ratification
- 03The Role of Assemblies in Resisting Abuse
- 01Cromwell, Beaufort, and Political Overreach
- 02Roman and Venetian Examples of Institutional Control
- 03The Need for Vigilance in Free States
- 01Why the General Will Cannot Be Destroyed
- 02The Majority as the Bearer of Civic Will
- 03The Survival of Public Interest Under Corruption
- 01Liberty as Obedience to the Common Law
- 02The Relation Between Freedom and Public Authority
- 03Why the State Exists to Protect Liberty
- 01When Citizens Mistake Their Own Interest
- 02The Need for Civic Virtue to Preserve the General Will
- 03How Public Judgment Can Be Restored
- 01The Structure of the Roman Comitia
- 02The Centuriate and Tribal Assemblies
- 03Voting Procedures in the Roman Republic
- 01The Lot as a Democratic Method
- 02Election as a Governmental Function
- 03Secret Voting and Corruption Control
- 01How Assemblies Sanction Laws and Magistrates
- 02The Relation Between Orders and Votes
- 03The Need for Civic Equality in Decision-Making
- 01The Tribunate as a Middle Term in Government
- 02Balancing Prince, People, and Sovereign
- 03The Tribunate’s Role in Preserving the Constitution
- 01How the Tribunate Resists Usurpation
- 02The Need for Intermediate Magistrates
- 03The Protection of Public Liberty
- 01The Roman Tribunes and Their Functions
- 02The Conflict Between Orders in Rome
- 03The Use of Historical Models in Political Theory
- 01Why Extraordinary Authority Becomes Necessary
- 02The Inflexibility of Laws in Crisis
- 03The Dictatorship as a Temporary Remedy
- 01Roman Dictators and Public Necessity
- 02The End of the Republic and Emergency Rule
- 03The Relation Between Crisis and Constitutional Suspension
- 01Why Emergency Authority Must Remain Limited
- 02The Danger of Ceremonial Permanence
- 03The Need to Restore Ordinary Law
- 01The Civil Profession of Faith
- 02Religion as a Support for the Laws of the State
- 03The Relation Between Worship and Citizenship
- 01Ancient Civic Religions and Political Unity
- 02Christianity and the Transformation of Religion
- 03The Example of Pagan and Clerical Systems
- 01Social Sentiments Required of Citizens
- 02The Moral Effects of Religious Belief
- 03The Limits of Religious Authority in Politics
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