- 01Obstacles to ratification and the need for moderation
- 02Purpose of the Federalist essays and the stakes of union
- 03Hamilton's support for the new Constitution and plan of argument
The Federalist Papers
Constitutional design and federalism.
85Chapters
220Lessons
466Topics
Certificate of completion included
This course was produced by Cavua from a public-domain text.
Skills this course leaves you with.
- Explain the constitutional arguments made in The Federalist Papers
- Analyze the problems of confederation, faction, and interstate conflict
- Describe how federalism is presented as a safeguard against foreign threats and domestic instability
- Compare the proposed Constitution’s advantages in commerce, revenue, and military defense
- Interpret key themes from the essays on union, territory, and the insufficiency of the Articles of Confederation
Curriculum
The full table of contents.
Every chapter, every lesson, every topic — laid out before you enroll. Click any chapter to expand it.
- Chapters
- 85
- Lessons
- 220
- Topics
- 466
- 01Union as the foundation of American prosperity
- 02Public consideration of the proposed Constitution
- 01Security against foreign arms and influence
- 02Treaties, laws of nations, and national administration
- 03Direct violence and settlement of disputes
- 01Foreign force and the causes of war
- 01National defense and unified militia discipline
- 01Military weakness under divided governments
- 02Foreign powers and national safety
- 01Union as a defense against foreign danger
- 02Jealousy and rivalry among separate confederacies
- 03Foreign alliances and outside interference
- 01Dangers of disunion and domestic factions
- 02Historical examples of personal passions causing war
- 03Commerce, republics, and the fallacy of perpetual peace
- 04Neighboring states as natural enemies
- 01Territorial disputes over unsettled and Western lands
- 02Wyoming and Vermont boundary controversies
- 03Commercial rivalries among the states
- 01Commercial regulations and interstate reprisals
- 02Public debt as a source of collision
- 01Private-contract laws and retaliatory conflict
- 02Incompatible alliances and foreign entanglement
- 01War between the states and predatory devastation
- 02Standing armies and the growth of despotism
- 03Britain’s insular security and the case for union
- 01A firm Union as a barrier against domestic faction and insurrection
- 01Utility of a confederacy
- 01Montesquieu's confederate republic
- 01Definition of a confederate republic
- 01Faction as the chief danger to popular government
- 01Definition of faction and remedies
- 02Causes of faction in human nature and property
- 01Causes of faction in legislation
- 02Controlling the effects of majority faction
- 01Pure democracy and faction
- 02Republics and representation
- 03Advantages of an extended republic
- 01Greater number of electors and better representation
- 02Large republics as a safeguard against faction
- 01Extent and proper structure of the Union as a republican remedy
- 01Commercial importance of the Union
- 01Federal navy as leverage in commerce
- 01Neutrality and national power
- 02Commercial independence versus passive commerce
- 03Fisheries, lakes, and Mississippi rights
- 04Fisheries as a nursery of seamen
- 05Union as the basis of a navy
- 01Southern and Northern contributions to naval strength
- 02Interstate commerce and the benefits of union
- 01One great American system
- 01Commerce as the Basis of Revenue
- 02Direct Taxation and the Limits of State Revenue
- 03Import Duties Under a General Union
- 04Consequences of Revenue Failure and Land Tax Burdens
- 01Economy of a single national civil list
- 02Why disunion would require multiple governments
- 03Costs of customs enforcement and military establishments
- 01Republics and democracies distinguished
- 02Practical extent of the Union
- 03Benefits of an extended republic
- 01Need to examine the Confederation's insufficiency
- 02National humiliation under the present system
- 01Legislation for states versus individuals
- 02Why laws need sanctions and coercion
- 03States cannot be trusted to comply
- 01Impatience of sovereign control and local resistance
- 02Thirteen sovereign wills and the collapse of federal execution
- 01Legislation for states as a source of anarchy
- 02Force as the only constitutional remedy
- 03Why coercion would fail in practice
- 01Violent death of the Confederacy
- 02Natural death through noncompliance
- 03Military enforcement and despotism
- 01Federal power must act on citizens directly
- 02State obstruction versus open resistance
- 01Means of resisting opposition to the national government
- 01Federal power and local police powers
- 02State governments as a check on federal encroachment
- 01State governments' superior influence
- 01Feudal baronies and aristocratic power
- 02Confederate governments compared to feudal baronies
- 01Review of confederate governments
- 01Amphictyonic council and its powers
- 02Weakness and domination of the confederacy
- 03Greek disunion, Peloponnesian war, and Macedonian conquest
- 01Achaean federal constitution
- 02Rise, decline, and Roman destruction of the league
- 01The Germanic body
- 01Constitutional powers of the German empire
- 02Weakness and disorder of the confederacy
- 03Wars and foreign intervention in Germany
- 01Military preparations and federal troops
- 02Circles as instruments of coercion
- 03Donawerth and the Bavarian intervention
- 04Why the empire has endured
- 01Poland as a warning against local sovereignty
- 02Swiss cantons and the limits of confederacy
- 01Structure of the United Netherlands Confederacy
- 02Powers of the States-General and Provincial Restraints
- 03The Stadtholder's Executive Influence
- 01Stadtholder's prerogatives and revenues
- 02Weakness of the Belgic confederacy in practice
- 03Defective contributions and foreign interference
- 01Critical emergencies and constitutional overreach
- 02Stadtholder influence and external pressures
- 03Failed reform efforts and federal taxation
- 04The confederacy’s crisis and hoped-for union
- 01Federal precedents and the failure of confederation
- 01Total want of a sanction to federal laws
- 02Lack of mutual guaranty of state governments
- 01Regulating state contributions by quotas
- 01Taxes on articles of consumption as a fairer revenue system
- 01Indirect taxes and natural limits on duties
- 02Apportionment of direct taxes by land or population
- 01Need for federal regulation of commerce
- 01The power of raising armies by requisitions
- 01Equal suffrage and majority rule
- 02Dangers of minority veto and unanimity
- 03Foreign corruption and faction in republics
- 01Want of a judiciary power
- 01Congress as an improper single assembly
- 02Ratification by the people as the basis of national authority
- 01Objects of federal power
- 02Unlimited powers for common defense
- 01Federal power over common defense
- 01Public defense and federal authority
- 02Adequate powers for national interests
- 01Impracticability of one general system
- 01Objection to standing armies in peacetime
- 01State constitutions and standing armies
- 02Articles of Confederation and military restraints
- 01Strategic dangers from Britain and Spain
- 02Frontier garrisons and standing forces
- 03Need to match enemy military buildup
- 01Naval establishments, dock-yards, and garrisons
- 01Why common defense cannot be left to the states
- 02Dangers of separate military establishments
- 01State military forces as a threat to the Union
- 02Limits of a ban on standing armies in peacetime
- 03Pretenses of danger and executive-legislative usurpation
- 01Prohibition on raising armies in peacetime
- 02Militia versus regular forces
- 03State examples of peacetime troops
- 01Necessity versus parchment restrictions
- 01Restraining legislative authority in national defense
- 01Origin of the anti-standing-army idea
- 02English Bill of Rights and parliamentary control
- 03American adoption and overextension of the principle
- 01Two-year limit on military appropriations
- 01Limits of the conspiracy objection
- 02Two-year appropriations and wartime necessity
- 03Union versus disunion in military danger
- 01Federal laws and the need for military force
- 02Familiarity with federal authority
- 03State magistrates as auxiliaries to enforcement
- 01Necessity of force against insurrections
- 02Popular resistance and state-government safeguards
- 01National regulation of the militia
- 02Uniform organization and discipline
- 03Federal authority versus state appointment
- 04Militia as the natural defense of liberty
- 01Limits of federal power to call out the militia
- 02Why universal militia drilling is impractical
- 01Militia as the substitute for a standing army
- 02Critique of fears about militia and federal control
- 01Mutual aid against insurrection or invasion
- 01Need for a general power of taxation
- 02Limits of quotas and requisitions
- 03War, credit, and borrowing under taxation
- 01Primary truths and first principles
- 02Geometry, ethics, and politics as examples
- 03Infinite divisibility of matter
- 01Arguments for a general power of taxation
- 02Objections to an indefinite taxing power
- 01Answer to objections against indefinite taxation
- 01State taxing power under the Constitution
- 02Exclusive federal powers and concurrent taxation
- 01Necessary and proper clause as a declaratory power
- 02Supremacy clause and concurrent taxation authority
- 01State and federal coequal authority in revenue
- 02Roman republic as precedent for dual legislatures
- 03No practical contradiction between taxing powers
- 01The proportion between federal and state revenue
- 01Concurrent jurisdiction in taxation
- 01Inequality from restricted revenue sources
- 02Objection about the size of the House of Representatives
- 01Natural representatives of merchants, professions, and landholders
- 01Business of taxation
- 01Objection about local knowledge in internal taxation
- 02Federal use of state tax systems and uniformity
- 03Internal taxation versus requisitions
- 01Objections to internal taxation
- 02Answers on officers, influence, and double taxation
- 01Poll taxes as a federal taxing power
- 01Candor in judging the Constitution
- 02Balancing stability, energy, and liberty
- 03Defining federal and state powers
- 04Compromises among states and local interests
- 05Difficulties overcome in framing the Constitution
- 01Ancient lawgivers and constitutional reform
- 02Conflicting objections to the Constitution
- 03Confederation powers and the objections answered
- 04Western territory as a national stock
- 05Congress's constitutional overreach and the dilemma of dissolution or usurpation
- 01Republican form of government
- 01Republican standards for government
- 02Constitutional conformity to republican government
- 03Titles of nobility and state republican guarantees
- 01The Constitution as federal and national
- 01Authority to frame a national government
- 02Departure from the commissions
- 03Duty and necessity in irregular reform
- 01Charge that the convention exceeded its powers
- 01Two general points of view
- 02Classes of federal powers
- 01War powers and military preparedness
- 02Limits on army appropriations
- 03Naval protection and coastal security
- 01Limits of external taxation
- 02General welfare clause and enumerated powers
- 03Articles of Confederation as precedent
- 01Foreign intercourse powers
- 01Piracies, felonies, and offenses against the law of nations
- 02Foreign commerce and the slave trade clause
- 03Harmony and intercourse among the states
- 01Commerce among the several States
- 02Commerce with the Indian tribes
- 01Dissimilarity in the rules of naturalization
- 01Establishing post roads
- 01Miscellaneous powers of the Constitution
- 01Guarantee of republican government
- 02Protection against invasion and domestic violence
- 01Validity of pre-Constitution debts and engagements
- 01Amending the Constitution by three-fourths of the states
- 01Prohibitions on treaties, coinage, and paper money
- 02Limits on state imposts, troops, and war powers
- 01Necessary and proper clause
- 01Implied powers and constitutional redress
- 02Supremacy of federal law over state constitutions
- 01Oath or affirmation to support the Constitution
- 01Union essential to public happiness
- 02State governments' structural advantages
- 03Original powers and taxation under the Confederation
- 01People as the ultimate authority
- 02Natural attachment to state governments
- 01Disposition and faculty to resist each other
- 02Local spirit in Congress and state legislatures
- 01State and federal means of opposition
- 01Standing armies and state resistance
- 02Federal dependence on the people
- 01Federal power and the security of state governments
- 01Separation of powers and tyranny
- 01Montesquieu's meaning of separated powers
- 01State constitutions and mixed powers
- 01State constitutions blending powers of government
- 02Conclusion on the separation-of-powers charge
- 01Need for constitutional control among departments
- 02Legislative usurpation and parchment barriers
- 01Legislative predominance and executive usurpation
- 02Virginia's concentration of powers
- 01Pennsylvania's constitutional violations and weak checks
- 01Parchment barriers and constitutional limits
- 01Appeal to the people through a convention
- 02Objections to frequent popular appeals
- 03Legislative advantage and partisan conventions
- 01Periodical appeals as a constitutional safeguard
- 02Pennsylvania Council of Censors as a test case
- 03Party conflict and the limits of censorial revision
- 01Interior structure and mutual checks
- 02Division of legislative and executive power
- 03Federal republic and double security
- 04Majority factions and protection of minority rights
- 01Qualifications of electors and representatives
- 01Safety of biennial elections
- 02British and Irish election precedents
- 01Ireland and colonial examples of election frequency
- 01Annual elections and the limits of the proverb
- 01Frequency of elections as a safeguard against tyranny
- 02Why biennial elections suit federal legislation
- 01Federal legislation requires broad practical knowledge
- 02Foreign affairs and legislative experience
- 03Distance, new members, and election safeguards
- 01Slave representation and taxation
- 02Common census rule for representation and taxation
- 01Objections to the House size
- 02State variations in representation ratios
- 03Principle of proportional representation
- 01Objections to the House's small size
- 01Ineligibility for newly created or enriched civil offices
- 02Trust, circumspection, and the case for republican government
- 01Federal legislation and local knowledge
- 02Population growth and representation
- 03British House of Commons comparison
- 01Republican safeguards in representative selection
- 02Objections to the size of federal districts
- 03State examples disproving the anti-representation charge
- 01Security for periodic reapportionment and enlargement
- 02House, Senate, and the power of the purse
- 01Why a smaller representative body may be more effective
- 02Quorum and majority requirements for legislative business
- 01Constitutional authority over congressional elections
- 02Risks of exclusive state control
- 03Why House elections need federal oversight
- 01Why Congress Would Not Manipulate Elections for a Favored Class
- 02Property, Commerce, and the Improbability of Partial Election Laws
- 01Locality of elections and state comparisons
- 02Uniform election timing and rotation in Congress
- 01Qualifications of senators
- 01Equal representation and the Senate's legislative check
- 02Purposes of a senate
- 03Effects of mutable government
- 01Need for a national character
- 02Foreign opinion as a guide to policy
- 03Why a stable senate preserves reputation
- 01Responsibility and long-term legislative measures
- 02Senate as a safeguard against popular error
- 01Ancient republics and the need for a senate
- 02Representation in ancient governments
- 03Answer to the charge of senatorial aristocracy
- 01Maryland Senate as a test case
- 02British example of aristocratic failure
- 03Ancient republics and popular branches
- 01Senate cannot become an aristocratic body
- 02House and people can restore the Constitution
- 01Treaty-making power and the Senate's role
- 01Impeachments as a political tribunal
- 02Why the Senate is the proper court of impeachments
- 03Objections to a separate impeachment court
- 04Perfection as an impossible standard
- 01Separation of powers and impeachment checks
- 02New York's impeachment court as precedent
- 01Undue accumulation of senatorial power
- 01Senate appointments and judicial bias
- 02Treaty-making power and impeachment
- 01The executive department and anti-monarchy misrepresentation
- 01Refutation of the President's alleged power over Senate vacancies
- 01State legislatures fill Senate vacancies
- 01Advantages of the electoral college
- 02Vice-President selection and role
- 01Single executive magistrate and comparisons to monarchs and governors
- 02Four-year elected term versus hereditary kingship
- 03Impeachment and personal responsibility of the President
- 01Qualified negative versus absolute veto
- 02Commander-in-chief and executive military powers
- 01Pardoning power and treason
- 02Limited power to adjourn Congress
- 03Treaty-making authority with Senate consent
- 01Receiving ambassadors and public ministers
- 02Nomination and Senate confirmation of appointments
- 03Comparison with the British king and Governor of New York
- 01Contrast between the President and the King of Great Britain
- 01Energy in the Executive
- 02Ingredients of executive energy
- 01Dependence on the people and responsibility
- 02Why executive unity promotes energy
- 03Historical objections to plural executives
- 04Reason-based case against plurality in the Executive
- 01Plural executive and divided responsibility
- 02Council in the British monarchy versus republic
- 03Why a single executive is safer
- 01Objections to an executive council
- 02Need for an energetic executive
- 03Unity as the source of executive energy
- 04Dangers of plurality in the executive
- 01Plural executive and divided responsibility
- 01Responsibility and councils in the British monarchy
- 02Why a single executive is safer in a republic
- 03Dangers of a small executive council
- 01Expense of a large executive council
- 02Unity of the executive as a constitutional advantage
- 01Personal firmness in executive office
- 02Stability of administration under executive tenure
- 01Executive independence from legislative dominance
- 01Four-year executive term and public liberty
- 01Executive administration and stable appointments
- 02Disadvantages of excluding the chief magistrate from re-election
- 03Doubts about the supposed benefits of exclusion
- 01Adequate provision for executive support
- 02President's fixed compensation and emoluments
- 01Qualified negative as executive self-defense
- 02Checks against bad laws and legislative excess
- 03Caution in exercising the veto
- 01Qualified negative versus absolute veto
- 02State experience with the revisionary council
- 03Why judges should remain distinct from the executive
- 01Commander-in-chief of the army and navy
- 02Executive opinions from department heads
- 03Pardoning power and the case for executive mercy
- 04Treason, rebellion, and timely pardons
- 01Nature of the treaty-making power
- 02Why the President and Senate should share treaty power
- 03Why the House should be excluded from treaties
- 04Two-thirds of members present versus the whole body
- 01Constitutional appointment clauses
- 02Why appointment power matters
- 03Three possible modes of appointment
- 01Advantages of a single appointing mind
- 02Nomination versus final appointment
- 01Nomination versus appointment
- 02Senate concurrence as a check on favoritism
- 01Senate integrity as a check on executive influence
- 02Constitutional safeguards against appointment corruption
- 01Senate restraint and administrative stability
- 02Nomination versus appointment and public accountability
- 03New York council of appointment and secrecy
- 01Critique of a council of appointment
- 02House of Representatives in appointments
- 03Remaining executive powers
- 04Executive safety and responsibility
- 01Mode of appointing the judges
- 02Judicial tenure during good behavior
- 01Judiciary as the weakest department
- 02Judicial review under a limited constitution
- 03Courts as interpreters of constitutional supremacy
- 01Judicial review as a safeguard against legislative encroachments
- 02Judicial independence against popular passions and unjust laws
- 03Permanent tenure and the qualifications of judges
- 01Good-behavior tenure for judicial offices
- 01Judicial compensation and salary protection
- 02Impeachment and judicial responsibility
- 03Limits on removing judges for inability
- 01Federal judicial power over constitutional and national cases
- 02Interstate, foreign, and impartiality-based jurisdiction
- 01Cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States
- 02Treaties, ambassadors, and admiralty jurisdiction
- 03Controversies involving the United States, states, and citizens
- 04Land claims under grants of different states
- 05Cases between a state and its citizens or foreign parties
- 06General justification for federal judicial powers
- 01Supreme Court as a separate final tribunal
- 02Why judicial power should not rest in the legislature
- 01Power of constituting inferior courts
- 01Need for inferior federal courts and limited appeals
- 02Supreme Court original jurisdiction in cases involving ambassadors, ministers, consuls, and states
- 03Appellate jurisdiction and the trial by jury
- 01State courts and concurrent federal jurisdiction
- 02Appeals from state courts to the Supreme Court
- 03Appeals from state courts to inferior federal tribunals
- 01Silence versus abolition of civil jury trial
- 02Proper use of legal maxims in constitutional interpretation
- 01Civil jury trials not abolished by the Constitution
- 02State-court jurisdiction preserves civil juries
- 03Value of jury trial and criminal safeguards
- 01Mode of tax collection and revenue officers
- 02Trial by jury as a check on corruption
- 01State-by-state differences in jury trial limits
- 01Objections to the Massachusetts proposition
- 01Equity jurisdiction and jury trials
- 01Civil jury trials and constitutional discretion
- 01Absence of a bill of rights
- 02Bills of rights as limits on government
- 03Liberty of the press and public opinion
- 01The Constitution as a bill of rights
- 02Distance from the seat of government
- 01Debts due to the United States
- 02Expense of the proposed government
- 01Federalist defects and state constitution parallels
- 02Union safeguards for republican government
- 03Hamilton’s closing defense of the Constitution
- 01Why prior amendments are impractical
- 02The Constitution's amendment process after ratification
- 03Moderation and the dangers of delay
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